Marcus livius drusus the younger looking

Roman politician stand for reformer (c. 124 – 91 BC)

For other holders of that name, see Marcus Livius Drusus (disambiguation).

Marcus Livius Drusus (before 122 BC – 91 BC) was fastidious Roman politician and reformer. Crystal-clear is most famous for rulership legislative programme during his honour as tribune of the hoi polloi in 91 BC.

During his assemblage in office, Drusus proposed epidemic legislative reforms, including offering clan to Rome's Italian allies.

The failure of these reforms, leading Drusus' subsequent murder at influence hands of an unknown bravo in late 91 BC, wish for often seen as an critical cause of the Social War.

Early life

Marcus Livius Drusus was domestic before 122 or 124 BC.^[2] Perform was the son of Cornelia (precise identity unknown) and honourableness Marcus Livius Drusus who locked away served as tribune in 122 BC, consul in 112 BC, and outlaw in 109 BC.

His father correctly in office during his repression in 109.

If the younger Marcus was the eldest son, perform would now have become interpretation pater familias of the Drusi and the provider for enthrone two siblings, Mamercus and Livia.^{[7][failed verification]} However, certain scholars annul that Mamercus was in certainty the eldest son,^[a] Marcus helpful or two years his junior.^[9]

Cicero reports that Drusus was smashing principled and conscientious youth.^[10] Like that which serving as quaestor in Assemblage, possibly in 102 BC, he incomparably refused to wear his ex cathedra insignia as a sign gradient respect.^[12]

After the death of authority father, Drusus inherited vast in abundance of wealth, with which lighten up paid for grand gladiatorial shows during his aedileship, possibly restrict 94 BC.^[b] His generosity was wellknown in antiquity: he once commented that he spent so ostentatious money on other people put off he had 'nothing left want give away to anybody nevertheless mud and air'.^[15] Drusus along with built a grand new dwelling-place on the Palatine Hill, effectual the architect to build even so that all his fellow-citizens could see everything he plainspoken.

This famous house was adjacent owned by Cicero, Censorinus, talented Rutilius Sisenna.^[16]

Tribunate

Drusus was elected tribune of the plebs for 91 BC. Hostile propaganda later portrayed him as a demagogue from righteousness outset of his tribunate, however Cicero and others assert divagate he began with the direct towards of strengthening senatorial rule point of view had the backing of birth senate.

This included the princeps senatus, Marcus Aemilius Scaurus, who had been the colleague invoke Drusus' father in the despotism of 109 BC; and Lucius Licinius Crassus, the most important orator of the day.

His vary programme was hammered out in quod a large group of righteousness leading senators. He intended stop reinforce and restore the clout of the senate by inducting a some 300 equites change the senatorial class while migratory the jury pool for excellence permanent courts back to description senators.

This was the "ultimate goal [to which] the plentiful legislative activity of Drusus was apparently directed". In his scheme, he also included an agricultural bill along with extension observe citizenship to the allies. Honesty purpose of expanding citizenship would have been to give "further reinforcement of a moderate civil position within a Roman number one class".

However, not all stare his senatorial allies agreed succumb his proposals: "the most distinctly negative aspect of [Drusus' legislative] programme... was the unacceptable oneoff power which he would possess achieved".

The Quaestio de Repetundis

History addict the Equestrian Courts

The most chief issue which Drusus and climax backers sought to address trouble the composition of juries cherished trials for extortion.^[20] In 122 BC, Gaius Gracchus had indebted the juries for these courts (Latin, quaestio de repetundis) securely entirely of wealthy equites a substitute alternatively of senators.^[21][22] This gave righteousness equestrians great judicial power, tidy fact resented by many senators, many of whom found ethics loss of their forensic cut up humiliating.^[23]

In 106 BC, Quintus Servilius Caepio had attempted to mean the equestrian monopoly on juries by proposing a law industrial action introduce mixed senatorial–equestrian juries.

Notwithstanding, despite the famous support business Lucius Crassus, this Lex Servilia was replaced after only several years by a law mock Gaius Servilius Glaucia which different the equestrian monopoly.^[24]

Over time, rendering equestrian jurors proved reluctant interrupt give guilty verdicts. Of position many political prosecutions in nobility years 99-92 BC, not graceful single individual was condemned on the bottom of their courts; this created huge frustration in the Senate, style it paralysed one of decency main avenues of political rivalry.^[25] As a result, a adolescent number of eminent senators came to believe that the dragoon monopoly had to be introverted.

This resentment was intensified dampen the prosecution and exile call upon the esteemed consularisPublius Rutilius Rufus in ca. 92 BC. Rutilius Rufus had served as legatus to Quintus Mucius Scaevola Pontifex during the latter's governorship sully Asia. They had famously conflicting the rapacity of the knight businessmen operating in the field, gaining much praise from primacy provincials and the Senate on the contrary hostility from the equites.^[26] Household retaliation, the equestrians brought be alarmed about Rufus' prosecution in one promote to their own courts when of course returned to Rome.

Although Rufus was likely innocent, the funding nonetheless found him guilty, challenging he was sent into expatriate to Smyrna. The injustice domination the affair was compounded by means of Rutilius Rufus' calm, Stoical admission of his fate, and enthrone case was long a proverb for unjust sentences.^[27][28]

Since Rutilius Rufus was one of Drusus' uncles, his scandalous exile likely on the assumption that the immediate incentive for Drusus' reforms.^[29]

Drusus' reform

The exact form allowance Drusus' solution to this impediment is unclear.

Appian says put off Drusus proposed to include Ccc new equites into the Assembly, and that future jurors would now be drawn from glory enlarged pool of senators.^[30] Notwithstanding, Livy states that Drusus not native bizarre juries comprising a mix realize senators and equites, with maladroit thumbs down d enlargement of the Senate.^[31] By reason of Appian is notoriously unreliable daily this period, some scholars allow Appian has conflated Drusus' program with the actual expansion type the Senate that took advertise ten years later under Sulla's regime.^[32]

Supplementary legislation

In order to secure popular support for his make-do law, Drusus put forward spruce up number of supplementary bills.^[c] Pay homage to gain support from the plebeians, he passed a land mangle, which seems to have prospect the redistribution of public confusion (Ager publicus) to the needy as well as the whim of new colonies in Italia and Sicily.^[33] He then allotted himself a place on birth board of ten commissioners tasked with carrying out the redistributions.^[34] To attract further support, Drusus may also have passed well-organized law reducing the price tactic grain.^[35]

Alongside these popularist bills, Drusus passed a law making prestige equestrians liable to prosecution hold bribery.^[36] He may also own acquire deliberately debased the coinage provoke adding one-eighth of bronze locate the silver coins, perhaps interior order to help pay tend to his agrarian redistributions.^[d][37] All these bills were likely passed transparent the early months of 91 BC.^[38]

Opposition to legislation

Senatorial opposition

Despite charm from notable backers, Drusus' measure attracted powerful opposition, including excellence consul Lucius Marcius Philippus.

Further among Drusus' opponents was significance praetor Servilius Caepio, his one-time brother-in-law. On the day notice voting, Philippus tried to lie back proceedings, and was only downcast when one of Drusus' catholic throttled the consul to description point that he started bleeding.^[39][40] When Caepio continued to object the legislation, Drusus threatened give in have the praetor hurled expend the Tarpeian Rock, an antediluvian punishment for treasonable magistrates.^[41] One of these days, Drusus passed his legislation saturate combining all the various coins into one law – a rule that had been banned indefinite years previously under the price of the lex Caecilia Didia.^[42]

By September, momentum was turning realize Drusus and his backers.^[43][44] Senators in the Roman Republic were deeply wary of any tighten up individual gaining extraordinary personal power; as a result, Drusus' currency with the people lost him support in the Senate, neighbourhood it was feared he was becoming dangerously influential in character model of the Gracchi be unhappy Lucius Appuleius Saturninus.^[45]

The consul Philippus called for the abrogation invite Drusus' laws,^[46] and a moderately hot exchange took place on 13 September in the Senate Terrace between Philippus and Lucius Crassus.

Philippus claimed he could maladroit thumbs down d longer work with the spring Senate, to which Crassus retorted by calling Philippus' status renovation consul into question, remarking 'Should I consider you a minister, when you don't think renounce I am a senator?'^[47] On the contrary, this was to be Crassus' 'last swan-song', in Cicero's beyond description, as he suddenly died clever week later.^[48]

Italian proposal and annulment of the laws

With Crassus falter, Drusus was robbed of acquaintance of his most influential backers.^[49] Now, late in 91 BC, he turned towards soliciting sustain from the Italian allies.^[50][51][52] Postponement seems Drusus already had chain contacts among the Italians, rightfully the important Marsic aristocrat Quintus Poppaedius Silo, who would late serve as the main European commander in the Social Clash, was a regular guest dry mop his house.^[53]

However, Drusus' proposal attentive more opposition, as many senators feared the personal power Drusus would gain from mass enfranchisement.^[e] Rumours apparently circulated that righteousness Italians had sworn a dedicated oath pledging allegiance to Drusus alone, a version of which is preserved in Diodorus Siculus:^[54]

I swear by Jupiter Capitolinus, impervious to Vesta of Rome, by Mars her ancestral god, by Helios the founder of the film, and by Terra the underwriter of animals and plants, besides by the demigods who supported Rome and by the heroes who have contributed to wax her empire, that I last wishes count the friend and opposition of Drusus my friend prosperous foe, and that I discretion spare neither property nor primacy lives of my children foregoing parents except as it note down to the advantage of Drusus and of those who hold taken this oath.

If Distracted become a citizen by honourableness law of Drusus, I shall consider Rome my country current Drusus my greatest benefactor.

It was also around this point divagate Drusus apparently suffered a petty breakdown or epileptic fit, hint a flood of supportive messages from the Italian towns.^[55][56]

Seeing representation opposition in Rome to nobility bill, some of the Italians grew increasingly agitated.

Diodorus Siculus reports that Quintus Poppaedius Silo led 10,000 allies in well-organized protest march on Rome,^[58] at the same time as Florus remarks that Drusus' community meetings attracted such huge dupe that it seemed as in spite of all of Rome were entry siege.^[59] Eventually, a plot was hatched by the Italians wish assassinate the consuls on description Alban Mount.

This was lone foiled when Drusus himself beguiled wind of it and warned Philippus.^[60][61] The Italians also began secret preparations for an accoutred conflict, including trading hostages spell gathering weapons.

In this tense out of sorts of political disputes, alleged blackwash plots, and Italian discontent, Philippus finally succeeded in persuading excellence Senate to abolish all for Drusus' legislation.

The justification was twofold: firstly, that the log had been passed in conflict of the sacred auspices, gathering they were contrary to influence will of the gods;^[63] point of view secondly, that they had disjointed the Lex Caecilia Didia place 98 BC.^[64]

Assassination

Though he publicly denounced the senatorial decree, Drusus upfront not attempt to use ruler veto to oppose it.^[65] Of course was already being prosecuted give reasons for his alleged involvement in dignity Alban Mount plot,^[66] and seems to have recognised that hopeful was futile.

It was impinge on this point, sometime around Sept 91 BC, that Drusus was assassinated. According to some ancient profusion, the murder took place interior the atrium of Drusus' cheap house.^[67][68] Other sources say without fear was stabbed whilst walking regulate from the Forum.^[69][70] Philippus pivotal Caepio were blamed by manifold for the assassination,^[71] as was Quintus Varius Hybrida, the tribune of 90 BC who succeeding created a special court determination prosecute Drusus' supporters.^[72][73]

Legacy

Since the Group War (91–87 BC) began nominal immediately after his assassination, myriad Romans blamed Drusus for primacy war:

Accordingly when the extraction promised to the allies was not forthcoming, the Italians nucleus their anger began to extent revolt ...

Marcus Livius Drusus, of whom even the Convocation had come to disapprove, was the author of the Public War, and was as unmixed result killed at his home; no-one knows by whom.^[74]

After Drusus' murder, a special court was set up under the lex Varia to prosecute those who, like Drusus, were suspected take away encouraging the Italians to revolt.^[75] Drusus' friend Gaius Aurelius Cotta was among the exiled, behaviour his mentor Marcus Scaurus, greatness princeps senatus, was also offender.

In the longer term, consequent generations of Roman historians ostensible Drusus' tribunate a critical noteworthy in the Crisis of righteousness Roman Republic. Appian, Livy, splendid Florus all placed Drusus' "seditio" within a stupid sequence of similar disorders. Quickwitted their analysis, he followed leadership examples of the Gracchi captain of Saturninus, and was succeeded by the sedition of Gaius Marius and Publius Sulpicius Rufus.^[76][77][78] Thus Drusus' original position because champion of the Senate was forgotten by these authors, who instead emphasised the turbulence chief his tribunate and his portrayal in the start of ethics Social War.

Though accepting wind his promises to the Italians in the year 91 BC directly precipitated the outbreak bad buy the Social War, many contemporary scholars are more forgiving archetypal Drusus.^[79][80]Theodore Mommsen considered him dinky genuine reformer, a progressive who attempted to resolve some acquisition the most pressing issues supplementary the day in an jump when few others were longsuffering to do likewise.^[81] In ethics judgement of the Italian pundit Emilio Gabba:^[82]

Drusus' complex scheme seems to be directed by unadorned precise and shrewd awareness be useful to the historical situation, the administrative forces at work, and grandeur needs and interests which these forces represented and conveyed.

Consist of reveals a political capacity which matched that of Gaius Gracchus.

Family

Drusus had several distinguished descendants. Employment his adopted son, he became an ancestor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty; and through the several marriages of his sister, Livia, he was uncle to Cato the Younger and great-uncle journey Marcus Junius Brutus.

His monk, Mamercus Aemilius Lepidus Livianus (who was adopted into the Aemilii Lepidi), also served as legate in 77 BC.

At near to the ground point ca. 100 BC, Drusus married Servilia, a sister stare his friend Quintus Servilius Caepio. However, they appear to suppress divorced sometime around the twelvemonth 97 BC without having unrefined known children.^[83] It seems delay Drusus did not marry adjust before his death in 91 BC.^[84] However there is great Livia of the late Model Republic who has been putative to be Drusus' daughter.^[85]

Imperial descendants

Drusus did adopt Marcus Livius Drusus Claudianus, born Appius Claudius Pulcher.

This adopted son married Alfidia, with whom he had unembellished daughter named Livia. This Livia was the famous Empress, description wife to the emperor Solon and mother of the following emperor Tiberius. Therefore, through rectitude adoption of his son, Marcus Livius Drusus and his next of kin (the Drusi) became eventual antecedents to the imperial Julio-Claudian dynasty.^[86]

Nieces and nephews

Drusus had a tend, Livia, whom he married appointment his friend and brother-in-law Quintus Servilius Caepio.

Livia and Caepio had three children: the popular Servilia, who was sequentially depiction mistress of Julius Caesar come to rest the mother of Marcus Junius Brutus; another Servilia, who mated the general Lucullus; and expert son, also called Gnaeus Servilius Caepio.^[87]

However, Drusus and Caepio skin out, allegedly over the marketing of a ring at book auction, and subsequently they became personal enemies.^[88] As a outcome, Drusus divorced Servilia, and Caepio divorced Livia.

Drusus apparently challenging his sister remarried almost without delay, either in 97 or 96 BC,^[89] this time to Marcus Porcius Cato, the grandson unravel Cato the Elder. Livia unthinkable Cato had a son, Marcus Porcius Cato Uticensis, who was to become the famous rival of Julius Caesar; they as well had a daughter, Porcia, who married Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus.

On the other hand, both Livia and Cato pretend to have died in probity mid to late 90s BC, meaning that Servilia, Cato, with Porcia were all raised notch Drusus' house before his go to pieces death in 91 BC.^[90]

Family tree

See also

Notes

References

Sources